Ancient Egypt was ruled by pharaohs for over 3,000 years, from the early Dynastic Period (c. 3100 BCE) to the fall of Egypt under Roman rule in 30 BCE. The pharaohs were considered both political rulers and divine figures, responsible for maintaining order, expanding the empire, and constructing magnificent temples and tombs.

This article provides a chronological list of the most significant pharaohs from each period in Egyptian history.

1. Early Dynastic Period (c. 3100–2686 BCE)

This period marks the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaohs.

• Narmer (Menes) – Unified Egypt and established the First Dynasty.
• Hor-Aha – Son of Narmer; continued consolidation of power.
• Djer, Djet, Den – Early kings who expanded Egypt’s control.

2. Old Kingdom (c. 2686–2181 BCE) – The Pyramid Builders

The Old Kingdom is famous for pyramid construction, including the Great Pyramid of Giza.

• Djoser (c. 2670 BCE) – Built the first step pyramid at Saqqara.
• Sneferu (c. 2600 BCE) – Built the Bent Pyramid and Red Pyramid.
• Khufu (Cheops) (c. 2589–2566 BCE) – Built the Great Pyramid of Giza.
• Khafre (c. 2558–2532 BCE) – Built the second pyramid at Giza and the Sphinx.
• Menkaure (c. 2532–2503 BCE) – Built the third pyramid at Giza.

3. First Intermediate Period (c. 2181–2055 BCE)

A time of political instability and civil war, with Egypt divided between regional rulers.

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4. Middle Kingdom (c. 2055–1650 BCE) – The Age of Expansion

Pharaohs restored order and expanded Egypt’s power.

• Mentuhotep II (c. 2055 BCE) – Reunited Egypt, ending the First Intermediate Period.
• Amenemhat I (c. 1991 BCE) – Established the 12th Dynasty.
• Senusret III (c. 1878–1839 BCE) – Expanded into Nubia.

5. Second Intermediate Period (c. 1650–1550 BCE)

Foreign rulers known as the Hyksos took control of Lower Egypt.

6. New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 BCE) – The Age of Empire

The New Kingdom was Egypt’s most powerful period, with famous pharaohs and military conquests.

• Ahmose I (c. 1550 BCE) – Expelled the Hyksos and started the 18th Dynasty.
• Hatshepsut (c. 1479–1458 BCE) – One of Egypt’s few female pharaohs; focused on trade and monumental building.
• Thutmose III (c. 1479–1425 BCE) – A great military pharaoh, expanded Egypt’s empire.
• Amenhotep III (c. 1386–1349 BCE) – Brought art and culture to new heights.
• Akhenaten (c. 1353–1336 BCE) – Introduced monotheism, worshipping Aten, the sun god.
• Tutankhamun (King Tut) (c. 1332–1323 BCE) – A young pharaoh famous for his intact tomb discovered in 1922.
• Ramses II (Ramses the Great) (c. 1279–1213 BCE) – One of the greatest pharaohs; led battles and built temples like Abu Simbel.

7. Third Intermediate Period (c. 1070–664 BCE)

Egypt saw internal division and invasion by foreign powers.

• Sheshonq I (c. 945 BCE) – Founded the 22nd Dynasty and conquered parts of Canaan.

8. Late Period (c. 664–332 BCE) – The Foreign Rulers

Egypt was ruled by Nubians, Persians, and later Greeks.

• Psamtik I (c. 664 BCE) – Restored Egyptian independence for a brief period.
• Nectanebo II (c. 360–343 BCE) – Last native Egyptian pharaoh before Persian rule.

9. Greco-Roman Period (332–30 BCE) – The Final Pharaohs

Egypt was conquered by Alexander the Great in 332 BCE, leading to the rule of the Ptolemaic Dynasty.

• Ptolemy I (c. 305 BCE) – Established the Greek rule of Egypt.
• Cleopatra VII (c. 51–30 BCE) – The last pharaoh of Egypt, famous for her alliances with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony.

After Cleopatra’s death in 30 BCE, Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire, marking the end of the pharaohs.

Conclusion

Egypt’s pharaohs shaped one of the greatest civilizations in history, leaving behind pyramids, temples, and stories of power, conquest, and mystery. From the unifier Narmer to the mighty Ramses II and the last ruler Cleopatra, their legacies continue to captivate the world.